Global warming

Introduction

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Global_warming?gclid=CLuu4d2Oq5UCFQKHlAod_2Fsjw

The phrase global warming refers to the documented historical warming of the Earth's surface based upon worldwide temperature records that have been maintained by humans since the 1880s. The term global warming is often used synonymously with the term climate change, but the two terms have distinct meanings. Global warming is the combined result of anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions of greenhouse gases and changes in solar irradiance, while climate change refers to any change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the average and/or the variability of its properties (e.g., temperature, precipitation), and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer.

Global Mean Temperature over Land and Ocean (Jan-Dec). (Source: NCDC/NESDIS/NOAA)

According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the decade of 1998-2007 is the warmest on record. The global mean surface temperature for 2007 is currently estimated at 0.41°C/0.74°F above the 1961-1990 annual average of 14.00°C/57.20°F. WMO states that among other remarkable global climatic events recorded in 2007, a record-low Arctic sea ice extent was observed which led to first recorded opening of the Canadian Northwest Passage.

The United States National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), found that in 2006 "Globally averaged land temperatures were +0.78°C (+1.40°F) and ocean temperatures +0.45°C (+0.81°F) above average, ranking 4th and 5th warmest, respectively. The land and ocean surface temperatures for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere ranked 2nd and 6th warmest, respectively," since global temperature record monitoring began in 1880. The NCDC report states that "during the past century, global surface temperatures have increased at a rate near 0.06°C/decade (0.11°F/decade) but this trend has increased to a rate approximately 0.18°C/decade (0.32°F/decade) during the past 25 to 30 years. There have been two sustained periods of warming, one beginning around 1910 and ending around 1945, and the most recent beginning about 1976."

The NCDC's Preliminary Annual Report on the Climate of 2007 (released December 13, 2007) states that:

• "the global annual temperature for combined land and ocean surfaces for 2007 is expected to be near 58.0°F and would be the fifth warmest since records began in 1880," and that
  
• "the year 2007 is on pace to become one of the 10 warmest years for the contiguous U.S., since national records began in 1895."

Global in Situ Temperature Anomalies and Trends, Surface and Mid Troposphere (Jan-Dec).

The NCDC 2006 report also described temperature trends aloft in the atmosphere measured over the past 50 to 60 years using balloon-borne instruments (radiosondes) and for the past 28 years using satellites. The report states that temperature data collected from approximately 5,000 to 30,000 feet above the surface indicate that 1958-2006 global temperature trends in the middle troposphere are similar to trends in surface temperature; 0.12°C/decade for surface and 0.15°C/decade for mid-troposphere.

On 2 February 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the Summary For Policymakers (SPM), an executive summary of the first volume of its 4th Assessment Report entitled, "The Physical Science Basis of Climate Change." The IPCC Report documents that not only do the records show a warming trend during the past half century in land-based temperature data but also in global ocean temperature measurements. The increases in ocean temperatures indicate global warming trends are not an artifact of urbanization or the so-called "heat-island" effect.

U.S. Trends

The NCDC Report also documents not only a long-term warming trend for the globe as a whole but also a warming trend for the contiguous United States. The Report documents that the 2006 average annual temperature for the contiguous U.S. was the warmest on record and nearly identical to the record set in 1998.

National (Contiguous U.S.) Temperature (1895-2006). (Source: NCDC/NESDIS/NOAA)

Mean temperature values for the contiguous U.S. in the NCDC data set were calculated using a network of more than 1,200 U.S. Historical Climatology Network stations. These data, primarily from rural stations, have been adjusted to remove artificial effects resulting from factors such as urbanization and station and instrument changes which occurred during the period of record.

Causes of Global Warming

In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report scientists conclude that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level" and, furthermore, they conclude with "very high confidence (at least a 9 out of 10 chance of being correct) that the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming" of the Earth's climate system.

Water in a boiling pot receives heat from an element or flame and loses heat via steam and radiative cooling.

As with every environmental variable, there are multiple factors that contribute to the "warmth" of the Earth. Humans measure warmth as temperature which is a measure of the amount of heat contained in a physical object. One can envision this concept by thinking of a pot on a stove. As heat is applied to the pot from a flame or heating element, the temperature of the pot will increase. But heat will also begin escaping the pot in the form of steam and also through radiative and convective cooling from the top and the sides of the pot. Eventually the rates of both heat loss (cooling) and heat gain (warming) may stabilize and the heat then contained within the pot at an instantaneous point of time would be reflected in an equilibrium temperature. This equilibrium temperature could be measured directly but it also could be calculated by determining all of the flux rates of heat entering (heating) and leaving (cooling) the pot.

One way that climate scientists look at the warmth of the Earth's climate system is to calculate the annual average temperature of the surface of the Earth using temperature measurements systematically collected throughout the year from thousands of land- and ocean-based weather and observation stations. The observed trends in the Earth's annual average temperature is one of the factors leading to the scientific conclusion that the Earth is now in a period of global warming.

In order to attempt to answer why the Earth is currently warming, scientists have conducted accountings of each of the fluxes of heat into (warming) and out of (cooling) the Earth's climate system. Since the measured data show that annual average temperatures of the Earth have been increasing in recent decades, the year-to-year annual flux of heat into the climate system must be greater than the annual flux of heat out of the system. By accounting for each of the fluxes of heat into and out of the system, scientists are able to assess which fluxes and processes are contributing to net annual warming of the Earth's surface. By conducting such accountings, scientists are able to quantify the influence that each natural and human factor has in altering the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth-atmosphere system and can calculate an index of the importance of each of the factor as a potential climate change mechanism. Each of the factors are called climate drivers and the relative impact or index of each factor's importance to climate change is called its radiative forcing.

Relative importance of climate drivers to current global warming as determined by the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. (Source: IPCC)

In completing such an assessment, the IPCC has concluded with very high confidence that the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming. The scientists found that the combined radiative forcing due to increases in carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide is the largest climate driver and its rate of increase during the industrial era is very likely to have been unprecedented in more than 10,000 years. Furthermore, the carbon dioxide radiative forcing increased by 20% from 1995 to 2005, the largest change for any decade in at least the last 200 years.

The IPCC also found that anthropogenic contributions to aerosols in the atmosphere produce cooling effects, referred to as global dimming. However the cooling (global dimming) effects due to human-caused aerosols are equivalent to about half of the warming effects due to the combined radiative forcing of human-produced greenhouse gases, causing a net warming.

Significant anthropogenic contributions to radiative forcing were also found to have come from several other sources, including tropospheric ozone changes due to emissions of ozone-forming chemicals, direct radiative forcing due to changes in halocarbons, and changes in surface albedo, due to land-cover changes and deposition of black carbon aerosols on snow. However the impacts of each of these factors was relatively small compared to the impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (each showing relative impacts of 15% or less relative to the greenhouse gas forcings).

Finally, an increase in solar irradiance since 1750 was estimated to have caused a forcing that contributed to the recent warming of the Earth. However, the impact of the increase in the amount of sunlight striking the Earth each year during this ~250 year time span was estimated to be only about 1/20^th of the warming impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.

Major Highlights

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/2006/ann/ann06.html

2006 2nd Warmest Year on Record for US
General Warming Trend, El Niño Contribute to Milder Winter Temps

This report was updated on May 1, 2007 to reflect revised statistics for the 2006 annual average temperature for the contiguous U.S. based on updates of preliminary data available in January 2007 as well as changes resulting from the switch from Version 1 to Version 2 of the U.S. Historical Climatology Network (USHCN) data set.

A more detailed discussion about how temperature trends are calculated and why differences can occur is available.

In an update to the 2006 average annual temperature for the contiguous U.S., NCDC scientists report that 2006 was the 2nd warmest year on record and nearly identical to the record set in 1998. Seven months in 2006 were much warmer than average, including December, which ended as the eighth warmest December since records began in 1895.

Using final quality controlled data from the recently completed USHCN Version 2 data set, the 2006 average annual temperature for the contiguous U.S. was the 2^nd warmest on record. The 2006 annual average temperature was 54.9°F, 2.1°F (1.2°C) above the 20th Century mean and 0.08°F (0.04°C) cooler than 1998.

These values were calculated using the USHCN Version 2 data set, which exploits recent scientific advances that better address uncertainties in the instrumental record. These data, primarily from rural stations, have been adjusted to remove artificial effects resulting from factors such as urbanization and station and instrument changes which occurred during the period of record.

The unusually warm temperatures during much of the first half of the cold season (October-December) helped reduce residential energy needs for the nation as a whole. Using the Residential Energy Demand Temperature Index (REDTI - an index developed at NOAA to relate energy usage to climate), NOAA scientists determined that the nation's residential energy demand was approximately 13.5 percent lower than what would have occurred under average climate conditions for the season.

After a cold start to December, the persistence of spring-like temperatures in the eastern two-thirds of the country during the final two to three weeks of 2006 made this the eighth warmest December on record in the U.S., and helped bring the annual average to near record high levels. For example, the monthly average temperature in Boston was 8°F above average, and in Minneapolis-St Paul, the temperature was 17°F above average for the last three weeks of December. Even in Denver, which had its third snowiest December on record and endured a major blizzard that brought the city to a standstill during the holiday travel season, the temperature for the month was 1.4°F warmer than the 1971-2000 average.

Six states had their warmest December on record (New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire) and only Washington state was colder than average in December.

The unusually warm start to this winter reflected the rarity of Arctic outbreaks across the country as an El Niño episode continued in the equatorial Pacific. A contributing factor to the unusually warm temperatures throughout 2006 also is the long-term warming trend, which has been linked to increases in greenhouse gases. This has made warmer-than-average conditions more common in the U.S. and other parts of the world. It is unclear how much of the recent anomalous warmth was due to greenhouse-gas-induced warming and how much was due to the El Niño-related circulation pattern. It is known that El Niño is playing a major role in this winter's short-term warm period.

U.S. and global annual temperatures are now approximately 1.0°F warmer than at the start of the 20th century, and the rate of warming has accelerated over the past 30 years, increasing globally since the mid-1970's at a rate approximately three times faster than the century-scale trend. The past nine years have all been among the 25 warmest years on record for the contiguous U.S., a streak which is unprecedented in the historical record.

AYURVEDA: THE ART OF BEING

At one point, he kneels, places his hands together, and explains to God why he is picking these herbs--they're for the doctor, Swamigal. Slowly, the man moves across the meadow to a river where he washesthe herbs. The camera lingers, leading you to imagine the warmth of that meadow, and the coolness the river water, and the comfort those sensations would bring to your body. You're witnessing both an essential practice of Ayurveda--the gathering of herbal remedies--and experiencing its most basic principle, the microcosm and the macrocosm, the interdependent relationship between people and the Earth.

Pan Nalin's exposition is beautiful and mysterious, and the interviews that follow, with the practitioners of this ancient Indian practice, are as subtle and as enigmatic. This isn't a film for those accustomed to the FAQ approach to documentary. The charismatic Dr. Swamigal, the droll Dr. Kostopoulos and the forthright Dr. Murthy, among other practitioners--all "vaidyas" or doctors of Ayurvedic medicine--demonstrate techniques, but they do not systematically explain their treatments. Rather, they discuss the philosophical foundation of Ayurvedic medicine, which is as different from Western medicine as Ayuvedic "drugs" are from the pills allopathic physicians dispense. Since Ayurveda is an art as much as it is a science, each doctor, while sharing a basic philosophy of healing, also draws upon beliefs and practices handed down from family members who were also vaidyas.

Obviously aware of their role as the first cinematic ambassadors of Ayurveda, some of the vaidyas trot out their miracle patients, one whose cancerous tumor disappeared, and another who, once blind from a diabetic condition, now has regained much of his sight. It's amusing to see these healers as colporteurs, hawking a philosophy of restoring balance. Fortunately, Nalin keeps the claims to a minimum, while depicting some surprising successes in the course of the film. One little girl, whose family was told by an allopathic physician that she would never walk, is hospitalized, bound in leg braces, and treated with various oils. Near the end of the film, she begins to walk.

In Nalin's eyes, the little girl's cure is a demonstration of the power of Ayurvedic medicine, yet for Western audiences, it seems incomplete. Her disease isn't named, and the vaidya doesn't explain his treatment. Clearly, Nalin does not wish to compare Ayurvedic practices with Western medicine. That's risky, since it might prove too enigmatic for some audiences, but it's courageous because it preserves the integrity of Ayurveda.

The filmmaker traveled throughout his native India--and to Greece--in order to make Ayurveda, speaking with many practitioners, including specialists. In the course of his research, he uncovered methods that were once thought to be lost. One example is the diagnostic "mud scan," where a vaidya packs special kinds of mud over the body of a patient, who then sits in the sun for one hour. When the mud is washed away, spots on the patient's skin reveal the source of his illness. Particularly memorable are the sequences with Dr. Murthy, who reads CAT scans brought to him by patients, and then prescribes roots and tree bark for their maladies. Hundreds of people wait on line for hours in order to be treated by him. For his part, the vaidya says, he is lucky to have so much land, and to be able to provide these healing plants to his patients.

Ayurveda: The Art of Being ends the same way it begins, in that shining meadow, the Eden of Ayurveda. While the film demonstrates this healing art as a thriving practice elsewhere in the world, you wonder why, if it works so well, it has not undermined allopathy. In fact, allopathy has many of its roots in Ayurveda. Colonization, and the diasporas it perpetuated, supplanted much of the knowledge of healing practices in India, Africa, and even here, where Native Americans practice a similar type of herbal medicine. Nalin's meadow is a return to that knowledge, a reminder that it's still there for the taking--or rather, for the healing.

Entrepreneurial activities in human resource management.

The changing nature of human resource management fostered the development of entrepreneurial activities in human resource management. Some of these changes were forced on human resource management through activities such as downsizing, which affected human resource staff as well as other employees. Other changes were the consequence of human resource management's need to demonstrate its ability to add value to a firm. Entrepreneurial activity was demonstrated through an entrepreneurial philosophy, treating other departments within the firm as customers when they utilized the services of human resource departments, and the development of new firms who provided human resource services. Like all entrepreneurial endeavors, human resource entrepreneurs have varied in their success.

The successful entrepreneurs have been able to identify better and more cost-effective ways to provide human resource services. They also have demonstrated the ability of human resource management to add value to a firm.

The field of human resource management typically has not been associated with entrepreneurial activities. In fact, some observers might argue that "entrepreneurial human resource management" is an oxymoron. However, analysis of changes in human resource management reveal that entrepreneurial activities indeed have occurred. Some of these activities resulted from a changing business environment. Other changes were consequences of changes in the field human resource management.

In this paper entrepreneurial activities in human resource management are examined by first analyzing changes occurring in the field of human resource management during the past few decades. Entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial activities in human resource management are then described. Finally, the resulting changes for the field of human resource management are discussed.

The Changing Nature of Human Resource Management

Human resource management has changed in various ways during the past few decades. Some of these changes are technical ones in which activities such as selection and human resource planning have become more complex and quantitative. Some of these changes are due to external factors such as technology, the legal environment, customer demands, foreign competition, or the globalization of business. Still other changes are due to basic value changes that require greater accountability from all parts of the firm.

The changing values are reflected in the expectation that all functions in a firm demonstrate their worth by demonstrating their ability to add value to the firm.

Human resource management has been criticized for being too expensive and providing no added value since no measurable business value could be demonstrated (Csoka, 1995). Therefore, human resource departments had to transform themselves from cost centers to tools of corporate strategy (Carrig, 1997). Any part of a firm that does not add real value can be removed through downsizing, restructuring, or outsourcing.

Human resources has always had a service role in the firm, but this role needed to change to a new role for human resources -- that is, business partner (Beatty & Schneir, 1997). Closer analysis of the various activities within human resource management reveals that some activities are cost centers (for example, benefits administration), but others do create value (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). For example, recruitment, selection, performance management, and training can add significant value to a firm.

The changes in human resource management also require human resource professionals to scrutinize carefully their own value to the firm. They must adopt a new paradigm that requires identifying the cost of specific actions and/or decisions, relating these costs to specific outcomes, and deciding whether or not the cost is worth the outcome(s). The requirement for bringing value to the firm applies to human resource professionals as well as to all other people. In some cases the results of this analysis may lead to a decision to eliminate specific human resource functions and/or staff.

Human resources can be a unique source of sustained competitive advantage. This is especially true when its parts have high internal and external fit (Baird & Meshoulam, 1988; Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 1988).

Entrepreneurial Activities in Human Resource Management

Since human resource management needs to be a value-added function, the cost and benefits of the human resource function have been analyzed in order to maximize the value of any resources directed toward this function. This analysis requires consideration of specific human resource functions (that is, job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, compensation system development, benefits administration, performance appraisal, career planning, training, etc.). Each function is analyzed to determine whether or not services related to this function should continue. If the specific services are considered worth providing, the next decision requires identifying the most cost-effective way to provide these services. Should the firm provide these services or should these services be provided by someone outside the firm?

The process of analyzing the cost-effectiveness of specific human resource functions has led to specific changes and entrepreneurial activities related to human resource management. The most obvious outcomes of these changes are outsourcing all or some of the human resource activities, an entrepreneurial philosophy of the human resource professionals providing services to other parts of the firm, and the development of human resource firms who provide the services to firms who have outsourced some or all of their human resource function.

When an organization is deciding whether or not to outsource a specific function, the usual criteria for making this decision concern the place of the function in the overall business strategy. If the function is considered "non-core," it is a likely target for outsourcing. When a firm outsources strategically and emphasizes its core competencies, it can leverage its skills and resources in order to make it more competitive.

By doing this the firm can concentrate its resources on a set of core competencies in which it can achieve preeminence and provide unique value to its customers (Quinn, Doorley, & Paquette, 1990). A carefully planned outsourcing of specific human resource activities can help a firm gain or retain its competitive advantage (Jeffay, Bohannon, & Laspisa, 1997).

When downsizing became a method for cost cutting and/or increasing shareholder value, most firms looked to the human resource department to reduce the number of employees. When this was accomplished, human resource departments then were asked to reduce the headcount in their own department. They moved from being the implementers of downsizing to the target of downsizing (Greer, Youngblood, & Gray, 1999). Many human resource departments saw their size decrease dramatically (Csoka, 1995).

Therefore, firms who see human resources as a non-core function often will decide to outsource all or some of the human resource function. This outsourcing is made to outside vendors who can perform the specific human resource function(s) better, faster, and more cost-effectively (Davidson, 1998).

In general, firms should first outsource the less critical areas of human resources--for example, payroll. They can outsource other activities after they have gained experience from outsourcing these less critical functions (Quinn & Hilmer, 1994). Carrig (1997) offered a specific classification of human resource activities that identifies a recommended order for outsourcing human resource activities. Carrig's (1997) classification includes three categories: transactional, traditional, and transformational. The transactional activities are the easiest to outsource. These activities include (in order from least difficult to most difficult to outsource) benefits administration, record keeping, employee services, communication, and performance management. Traditional activities are moderately difficult to outsource. These activities include (in order from least difficult to most difficult to outsource) training, recruiting, employee and labor relations, compensation, and management development. Transformational activities are the most difficult to outsource. These activities include (in order from least difficult to most difficult to outsource) business partner, strategic planning, organization development, and knowledge management.

Outsourcing of human resources started as a way to control human resource costs. Its popularity is gaining, but it is not a new concept (Haynes, 1999). Now outsourcing of human resources is seen as a strategic tool that heightens efficiency and allows firms to focus on their core business. Also, the popularity of mergers and acquisitions makes firms concerned about controlling fixed costs such as the wages for the human resource department (Gault, 1998).

The use of outsourcing can change the nature of human resources. Carrig's (1997) analysis of human resource practices lead to the conclusion that the human resource department of the future will have its greatest value if it extends outsourcing to a strategic partnership. In this way outsourcing is more than shifting the responsibility of specific tasks to a contractor.

An example of the partnership model for outsourcing is provided by the relationship between Corning and CCFL (College Center of the Finger Lakes), a nonprofit education and training organization founded as a consortium of colleges and chartered by the New York Board of Regents. Corning gradually shifted responsibility for much of its training from Corning's training department to CCFL. Corning still monitors the quality of the training provided by CCFL, and Corning does NOT outsource training related to the firm's core competencies. The initial partnership started by having CCFL administer sixty skill courses while Corning retained responsibility for education and training processes. This partnership progressed to a point where CCFL and Corning formed a joint organization in which CCFL managed skills courses, administered core competency courses, and developed training curricula; Corning installed systems and provided consulting. In the final stages of this partnership CCFL was responsible for delivering all training courses while the Corning training department provided strategic leadership, was responsible for the training content of employee orientation and leadership courses, focused on competency centered learning, and conducted research (DeRose & McLaughlin, 1995).

Corning's training department was characterized as entrepreneurial before the partnership with CCFL (DeRose & McLaughlin, 1995). It continued to be entrepreneurial with its partnership with CCFL, which was mutually beneficial. Corning was able to outsource most of its training to CCFL and control training costs. CCFL was able to expand its market, develop its entrepreneurial skills, and learn from a topnotch corporate training department (DeRose & McLaughlin, 1995).

An Entrepreneurial Philosophy of the Human Resource Professionals Providing Services to Other Parts of the Firm

When firms identified separate business units, human resource departments often were not identified initially as a business unit. They generated costs, not income. Therefore, they could not produce profits. However, when human resource management departments are expected to deliver economic value, a firm's various constituencies are willing to pay for these services (Beatty & Schneir, 1997).

As human resource departments developed and, in some cases, redefined their role in the firm, they proved that they could also generate income and, therefore, profits. This change often was accomplished by defining other departments in the firm as internal customers. The human resource department provided services needed by other departments--for example, training and recruitment. Therefore, internal customers could pay the human resource department for these services in the same way that they could hire an outside vendor to provide these services.

If a truly competitive model is used, departments or business units within a firm can be allowed to choose who will provide needed human resource services--the firm's human resource department or one of various outside vendors. Under such a model the human resource department is forced to adopt an entrepreneurial philosophy and look for better and more cost-effective ways to provide human resource services. If other business units are potential internal customers for the human resource department, the human resource department must create services that satisfy these internal customers and demonstrate value (Csoka, 1994).

Examples of this model are provided by Hewlett-Packard and Levi Strauss. Hewlett-Packard has a personnel manager in most of its divisions. These personnel managers purchase services through the regional or national organization. Levi Strauss developed a human resource consulting unit that does research on best practices and provides consulting services (Csoka, 1994).

Development of Human Resource Firms Who Provide the Services to Firms Who Have Outsourced Some or All of Their Human Resource Function

When firms outsource one or more human resource activities, these activities still must be performed successfully. In some cases these activities are performed by consulting firms who have existed for many years and developed expertise in one or more human resource areas (for example, Hay Associates). In other cases increased outsourcing has resulted in new opportunities for entrepreneurial firms who provide the needed human resource services. In fact, some of the new entrepreneurs are the human resource staff who formerly worked for one of the firms who has decided to outsource some of its human resource activities.

As outsourcing has increased, the amount of money directed to outside vendors obviously increased. Davidson (1998) described the amount of outsourcing revenue as "skyrocketing."

A summary of this outsourcing revenue (described in a survey completed by Staffing Industry Analysts, Inc.) projected 1997 outsourcing revenues as increasing 35 percent over 1996 revenues. Results of this study suggested that there was no end in sight for this record breaking growth (Davidson, 1998). A consultant with The Search Alliance, Inc., also forecasts continued growth in this area (Haynes, 1999).

Some of the entrepreneurial activity for human resource services has occurred not only in entrepreneurial human resource firms, but also in larger established firms who have expanded related services to include human resource activities. For example, Pricewaterhouse Coopers (PwC) and the HRIS/Payroll software vendor PeopleSoft have formed an alliance that allows them to offer human resource services needed by firms who choose to outsource.

They formerly provided services such as retirement planning, health and welfare planning, and stock-related administration. They expanded their services to include human resource services such as recruiting, applicant screening, pre-employment testing, and orientation for new hires. Newer services include payroll processing, compensation administration, training advice, performance management, human resource data maintenance, change management, employee communication, relocation services, expatriate administration, and termination processing. The addition of these services moves PwC-Peoplesoft toward a point where they can provide "one-stop shopping" for firms who decide to outsource human resource activities (Gunsauley, 1999). Obviously, the ability to offer such a wide range of services is extremely attractive to firms who are outsourcing human resource activities and are looking for an outside vendor to provide these services.

Intrapreneurial Activities in Human Resource Management

Pinchot (1985) brought attention to the activities of intrapreneurs, whom he described as "dreamers who do" -- that is, the people who take responsibility for creating any kind of innovation within an organization. Intrapreneurs may create or invent, but they always are able to turn an idea into a profitable reality.

Intrapreneurship is not a new idea. More than a hundred years ago John Patterson, the founder of National Cash Register, created a plan in which employees were paid for their ideas (Terazono, 1999). However, the importance of intrapreneurship has grown recently. Large firms want to compete, so they have sought out characteristics such as flexibility, growth, and innovation that are usually associated with entrepreneurship (Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990). Intrapreneurship is a way to stimulate innovation and use the creative energy of employees. The resources and independence given to employees allows them to innovate within the firm (Carrier, 1996).

Pinchot (1985) cited examples of intrapreneurial successes for products such as the Post-it notes produced by 3M, the Pontiac Fiero produced by GM, and the personal computer produced by IBM. He referred to intrapreneuring in a service industry by describing banking innovations such as certificates of deposit and Master Charge.

Other authors (for example, Bordeaux, 1987; Luchsinger & Bagby, 1987; Ross & Unwalla, 1986) have analyzed the characteristics of intrapreneurs. Some authors (for example, Ellis, 1985; Knight, 1987; Lessem, 1987; Roner, 1988) described the roles and functions of intrapreneurs. Other authors (for example, Clark 1999; Pryor & Shays, 1993) describe ways to maximize the success of intrapreneurial efforts.

The aforementioned authors' advice for encouraging intrapreneurs is applicable to any field (including human resources). However, it is important to note the fact that these authors did not cite human resource management as a likely place to find intrapreneurs.

Examples of intrapreneurial human resource activities were certainly not so dramatic as those found in manufacturing, but they have occurred and continue to occur. Intrapreneurial human resource activities occur primarily in two ways: (1) intrapreneurs in a firm develop services that can be sold to other firms (2) intrapreneurs in two or more firms work together to provide services that can be sold to a third party.

Advertising - The Increasing Value of Promotional Items as Marketing Tool

Brand marketing strategies have undergone a lot of changes over the past few years. A large number of latest advertising strategies have now replaced the older ones. In the current brand advertising scenario, the use of promotional items as brand marketing tools has increased manifold. Many organisations make use of business gifts as the substitutes for the conventional brand advertisements.

Many reasons can be attributed for the popularity of promotional items. The most important of all is their acceptance among the customers. Everyone likes to receive gifts and a company's clients, customers or associates are no different. In fact, they will be all the more elated to receive gifts from the company, and such gifts will come as a pleasant surprise to them. Be it the smallest of gifts or a more fancy one, they will send across a message of gratitude and appreciation on behalf of the company and are the best ways to let the customers know how important they are for a company. Most of these customers will reciprocate the appreciation showered on them by staying loyal with the brand for a long time.

Apart from this, promotional gifts also act as constant reminders to the recipients as well as their colleagues and family and create a presence for the brand in the market much effectively than other forms of marketing would. Also, if the gifts presented are of great utility to the recipients or are liked by them, they tend to use them on a daily basis and think of your company and the occasion of gifting more often. So, if you are looking for practical solutions for gifting, you can find many different gifting ideas by browsing through different websites on the Internet. Many websites offer customised gifting solutions in wide ranges such as pens and paper products, computer accessories, conference gifts, bags, umbrellas, mugs and cups, keyrings, conference folders and many other items.

However, before selecting any of these items, you should always keep in mind the fact that the gifts should match the occasion of gifting and also suit the choices of the recipients. For instance, giving chic conference folders during a trade show where the maximum invitees are elderly women will make no sense. So, if you get a little creative, you will certainly be able to create an impact with your promotional gifts and use them as effective marketing tools.

Yahoo & Google’s Impacts on the Newspaper Industry

Just when you thought they had run out of things to cut, some U.S. newspapers have come up with a new strategy: Cutting back on their publication schedule. This is not widespread enough yet to be called a trend but the announcements today that the Lexington (N.C.) Dispatch, a New York Times-owned paper, will eliminate its Monday editions; and the Daily Banner (Cambridge, Md.) will cut back from daily to twice a week (Wednesdays and Fridays) may be early warning signs that we will soon see repeated elsewhere soon.

(Two small daily Illinois newspapers also dropped their Monday editions last month.)

Though we’ve often reported on falling ad revenue, two additional factors are putting the squeeze on print publications — the rapid rise in the price of newsprint, and soaring transportation costs due to the rising cost of gasoline.

Meanwhile, news of layoffs and closures continue flowing in. The Newhouse News Service announced that it will close its Washington-based operation after the election — it had been in operation since 1961.

The Orlando Sentinel announced it has cut 153 jobs so far this year, including 52 newsroom positions in July alone.

Also, according to Editor & Publisher:

• The Newark, N.J., Star-Ledger threatened that if 200 of the paper’s 750 employees don’t agree to a buyout — and if the paper cannot reach cost-cutting agreements with its unions — the paper will be sold.

• The Bozeman Daily Chronicle revealed it has cut six FTEs and three part-time positions, which was 6.5 percent of its staff.

• The Lincoln, Neb., Journal Star said it cut eight newsroom positions and eight other jobs.

Compare all of this with what is happening on the online side of the news business. Yahoo’s alliance with more than 775 newspapers is reportedly driving significant traffic to its partners’ sites. In an unusual disclosure, the Dallas Morning News said it receives up to 800,000 visitors in a “couple of hours” from Yahoo links. An editor at the paper said that Yahoo links represent “27% of the day’s page views, and 65% of the day’s unique visitors.”

I’ve made an educated guess here before that Google News sends from between 10-25 percent of the traffic reaching newspaper websites. It seems likely, therefore, that the two search giants collectively account for over 50 percent of the typical newspaper site’s traffic.